Factory and shop lumber is graded with reference to its use for doors and sash, or on the basis of characteristics affecting its use for general cut-up purposes, or on the basis of size of cutting. The grade of factory and shop lumber is determined by the percentage of the area of each board or plank available in cuttings of spec- ified or of given minimum sizes and qualities. The grade of factory and shop lumber is determined from the poor face, although the quality of both sides of each cutting must be considered. Hardwoods. Because of the great diversity of applications for hardwood both in and outside the construction industry, hardwood grading rules are based on the proportion of a given piece that can be cut into smaller pieces of material clear on one or both sides and not less than a specified size. Grade classifications are therefore based on the amount of clear usable lumber in a piece. Special grading rules of interest in the construction industry cover hardwood interior trim and moldings, in which one face must be practically free of imperfections and in which Grade A may further limit the amount of sapwood as well as stain. Hardwood dimension rules, in addition, cover clears, which must be clear both faces; clear one face; paint quality, which can be covered with pain; core, which must be sound on both faces and suitable for cores of glued-up panels; and sound, which is a general-utility grade. Hardwood flooring is graded under two separate sets of rules: (1) for maple, birch, and beech; and (2) for red and white oak and pecan. In both sets of rules, color and quality classifications range from top-quality to the lower utility grades. Oak may be further subclassified as quarter-sawed and plain-sawed. In all grades, top-quality material must be uniformed in color, whereas other grades place no limitation on color. Shingles are graded under special rules, usually into three classes: Number 1, 2, and 3. Number 1 must be all edge grain and strictly clear, containing no sapwood. Numbers 2 and 3 must be clear to a distance far enough away from the butt to be well covered by the next course of shingles. The principal destroyers of wood are decay, caused by fungus, and attack by a number of animal organisms of which termites, carpenter ants, grubs of a wide variety of beetles, teredo, and limnoria are the principal offenders. In addition, fire annually causes widespread destruction of wood structures. Decay will not occur if wood is kept well ventilated and air-dry or, conversely, if it is kept continuously submerged so that air is excluded. Most termites in the United States are subterranean and require contact with the soil. The drywood and dampwood termites found along the southern fringes of the country and along the west coast, however, do not require direct soil contact and are more difficult to control. Teredo, limnoria, and other water-borne wood destroyers are found only in salt or brackish waters. Various wood species vary in natural durability and resistance to decay and insect attack. The sapwood of all species is relatively vulnerable; only the heartwood can be considered to be resistant. Table 4.15 lists the common species in accordance with heartwood resistance. Such a list is only approximate, and individual pieces deviate considerably. Preservatives employed to combat the various destructive agencies may be subdivided into oily, water-soluble salts, and solvent-soluble organic materials. The principal oily preservatives are coal-tar creosote and creosote mixed with petroleum. TABLE 4.15 Resistance to Decay of Heartwood of Domestic Woods Resistant or very resistant

V    dA dx 2G where v  shearing unit stress G  modulus of rigidity A  cross-sectional area Truss Deflections. The dummy unit-load method may also be adapted for the determination of the deformation of trusses. As indicated by Eq. (5.30), the strain energy in a truss is given by which represents the sum of the strain energy for all the members of the truss. S is the stress in each member caused by the loads. Applying Castiglianos first theorem and differentiating inside the summation sign yield the deformation: d   (5.98) AE P The partial derivative in this equation is the rate of change of axial stress with the load P. It is equal to the axial stress u in each bar of the truss produced by a unit load applied at the point where the deformation is to be measured and in the direction of the deformation. Consequently, Eq. (5.98) can also be written Sul d   (5.99) AE To find the deflection of a truss, apply a vertical dummy unit load at the panel point where the deflection is to be measured and substitute in Eq. (5.99) the stresses in each member of the truss due to this load and the actual loading. Similarly, to find the rotation of any joint, apply a dummy unit moment at the joint, compute the stresses in each member of the truss, and substitute in Eq. (5.99). When it is necessary to determine the relative movement of two panel points, apply dummy unit loads in opposite directions at those points. It is worth noting that members that are not stressed by the actual loads or the dummy loads do not enter into the calculation of a deformation. As an example of the application of Eq. (5.99), let us compute the deflection of the truss in Fig. 5.53. The stresses due to the 20-kip load at each panel point are shown in Fig. 5.53a, and the ratio of length of members in inches to their crosssectional area in square inches is given in Table 5.5. We apply a vertical dummy unit load at L2, where the deflection is required. Stresses u due to this load are shown in Fig. 5.53b and Table 5.5. The computations for the deflection are given in Table 5.5. Members not stressed by the 20-kip loads or the dummy unit load are not included. Taking advantage of the symmetry of the truss, we tabulate the values for only half the truss and double

Spirit level held plumb against brickwork Lining the face of bricks between the plumbed ends of each course Face plane will help to produce a wall that has an accurate face plane. Rest the The alignment of all the bricks in the face of edge of the spirit level against the face of the bricks in each course. a wall to give a uniform flat appearance (We dont refer to any of the bubbles in the level we just use the level as a straight edge.) Gently tap the bricks into line. Never strike the spirit level to line up a course. Lining in An accurate face plane will also be achieved if we range our work. This again means using our spirit level as a straight edge, but this time we place it in line with the stepped brickwork as it racks back. (This applies to a straight rack as well as a quoin.) Gently tap the bricks to align them with the edge of the spirit level. Never strike the spirit level to range a quoin. Using a spirit level diagonally Tooled or ironed